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Anton Diffring. Friedrich von Ledebur. Arthur Brauss. Luis Barboo. Nearly all 19th-century German historians made Frederick into a romantic model of a glorified warrior, praising his leadership, administrative efficiency, devotion to duty and success in building up Prussia to a great power in Europe.
Historian Leopold von Ranke was unstinting in his praise of Frederick's "heroic life, inspired by great ideas, filled with feats of arms Johann Gustav Droysen was even more extolling.
The Nazis glorified him as a great German leader pre-figuring Adolf Hitler , who personally idolized him. Associations with him became far less favorable after the fall of the Nazis, largely due to his status as one of their symbols.
The birth was welcomed by his grandfather, Frederick I , with more than usual pleasure, as his two previous grandsons had both died in infancy.
The new king wished for his sons and daughters to be educated not as royalty, but as simple folk. He had been educated by a Frenchwoman , Madame de Montbail, who later became Madame de Rocoulle , and he wished that she educate his children.
Frederick William I, popularly dubbed the Soldier King, had created a large and powerful army led by his famous " Potsdam Giants ", carefully managed his treasury, and developed a strong centralized government.
He was prey to a violent temper in part due to porphyria and ruled Brandenburg-Prussia with absolute authority. As Frederick grew, his preference for music, literature and French culture clashed with his father's militarism, resulting in Frederick William frequently beating and humiliating him.
In contrast, Frederick's mother Sophia was polite, charismatic and learned. Frederick was brought up by Huguenot governesses and tutors and learned French and German simultaneously.
In spite of his father's desire that his education be entirely religious and pragmatic, the young Frederick, with the help of his tutor Jacques Duhan , procured for himself a three thousand volume secret library of poetry, Greek and Roman classics, and French philosophy to supplement his official lessons.
Although Frederick William I was raised a Calvinist in spite of the Lutheran state faith in Prussia, he feared he was not one of God's elect. To avoid the possibility of Frederick being motivated by the same concerns, the king ordered that his heir not be taught about predestination.
Nevertheless, although Frederick was largely irreligious, he to some extent appeared to adopt this tenet of Calvinism. Some scholars have speculated that he did this to spite his father.
The pair slandered the British and Prussian courts in the eyes of the two kings. Angered by the idea of the effete Frederick's being so honored by Britain, Frederick William presented impossible demands to the British, such as "securing Prussia's rights to the principalities of Jülich - Berg ", and after , only Berg, [11] which led to the collapse of the marriage proposal.
Frederick found an ally in his sister, Wilhelmine, with whom he remained close for life; he was later devastated by her death in Wilhelmine recorded that the two "soon became inseparable.
Keith was intelligent, but without education. He served my brother from feelings of real devotion, and kept him informed of all the king's actions.
Soon after his previous affair, he became close friends with Hans Hermann von Katte , a Prussian officer several years older than Frederick who served as one of his tutors.
While the royal retinue was near Mannheim in the Electorate of the Palatinate , Robert Keith, Peter Keith's brother, had an attack of conscience when the conspirators were preparing to escape and begged Frederick William for forgiveness on 5 August ; [15] Frederick and Katte were subsequently arrested and imprisoned in Küstrin.
Because they were army officers who had tried to flee Prussia for Great Britain, Frederick William leveled an accusation of treason against the pair.
The king briefly threatened the crown prince with execution, then considered forcing Frederick to renounce the succession in favour of his brother, Augustus William , although either option would have been difficult to justify to the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire.
Frederick was granted a royal pardon and released from his cell on 18 November, although he remained stripped of his military rank.
Tensions eased slightly when Frederick William visited Küstrin a year later, and Frederick was allowed to visit Berlin on the occasion of his sister Wilhelmine's marriage to Margrave Frederick of Bayreuth on 20 November The crown prince returned to Berlin after finally being released from his tutelage at Küstrin on 26 February Frederick himself proposed marrying Maria Theresa of Austria in return for renouncing the succession.
He had little in common with his bride and resented the political marriage as an example of the Austrian political interference which had plagued Prussia since Once Frederick secured the throne in , he prevented Elisabeth from visiting his court in Potsdam , granting her instead Schönhausen Palace and apartments at the Berliner Stadtschloss.
Frederick bestowed the title of the heir to the throne, "Prince of Prussia", on his brother Augustus William ; despite this, his wife remained devoted to him.
Although Frederick gave Elisabeth Christine all the honors befitting her station, he rarely saw her during his reign and never showed her any affection.
When Prussia provided a contingent of troops to aid the Army of the Holy Roman Empire during the War of the Polish Succession , Frederick studied under Reichsgeneralfeldmarschall Prince Eugene of Savoy during the campaign against France on the Rhine ; he noted the weakness of the Imperial Army under the command of the Archduchy of Austria , something that he would capitalize on at Austria's expense when he later took the throne.
In Rheinsberg, Frederick assembled a small number of musicians, actors and other artists. He spent his time reading, watching dramatic plays, composing and playing music, and regarded this time as one of the happiest of his life.
In , Frederick finished his Anti-Machiavel , an idealistic refutation of Machiavelli. It was written in French and published anonymously in , but Voltaire distributed it in Amsterdam to great popularity.
Frederick and his father were more or less reconciled at the latter's death, and Frederick later admitted, despite their constant conflict, that Frederick William had been an effective ruler: "What a terrible man he was.
But he was just, intelligent, and skilled in the management of affairs In one defining respect Frederick would come to the throne with an exceptional inheritance.
A Prussian population estimated at 2. Prince Frederick was twenty-eight years old when his father Frederick William I died and he ascended to the throne of Prussia.
He was titled King in Prussia because this was only part of historic Prussia; he was to declare himself King of Prussia after acquiring most of the rest in Frederick's goal was to modernize and unite his vulnerably disconnected lands; toward this end, he fought wars mainly against Austria, whose Habsburg dynasty reigned as Holy Roman Emperors almost continuously from the 15th century until Frederick established Prussia as the fifth and smallest European great power by using the resources his frugal father had cultivated.
Upon succeeding to the throne on 31 May , [29] and desiring the prosperous Austrian province of Silesia to which Prussia had a minor claim , Frederick declined to endorse the Pragmatic Sanction of , a legal mechanism to ensure the inheritance of the Habsburg domains by Maria Theresa of Austria , daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI.
Thus, upon the death of Charles VI on 29 October , [30] Frederick disputed the succession of the year-old Maria Theresa to the Habsburg lands, while simultaneously making his own claim on Silesia.
Accordingly, the First Silesian War —, part of the War of the Austrian Succession began on 16 December when Frederick invaded and quickly occupied the province.
The Prussian king quickly snatched the territory, using as justification an obscure treaty from between the Hohenzollern and the Piast dynasty of Brieg Brzeg.
Frederick occupied Silesia, except for three fortresses at Glogau , Brieg and Breslau , [31] in just seven weeks, despite poor roads and bad weather.
In the course of the battle, believing his forces had been defeated by the Austrians, Frederick galloped away to avoid capture, [33] leaving Field Marshal Kurt Schwerin in command.
In actuality, the Prussians had won the battle at that very moment. Frederick would later admit to humiliation at his abdication of command [34] and would state: "Mollwitz was my school.
In early September , the French entered the war against Austria, and together with their allies, the Electorate of Bavaria , marched on Prague.
Charles was crowned on 2 February and claimed the crown of Bohemia as his own. With Prague under threat, the Austrians pulled their army out of Silesia to defend Bohemia.
When Frederick pursued them into Bohemia and blocked their path to Prague, the Austrians counter-attacked on 17 May However, Frederick's retrained cavalry proved effective, and ultimately Prussia claimed victory at the Battle of Chotusitz.
Prussian possession of Silesia gave the kingdom control over the navigable Oder River as well as nearly doubling its population, economy and territory.
In , Frederick also inherited the minor territory of East Frisia on the North Sea coast of Germany after its last ruler died without issue.
By , the Austrians had subdued Bavaria and driven the French out of Bohemia. Frederick strongly suspected Maria Theresa would resume war in an attempt to recover Silesia.
Accordingly, he renewed his alliance with France and preemptively invaded Bohemia in August , beginning the Second Silesian War. On 4 June , Frederick trapped a joint force of Saxons and Austrians that had crossed the mountains to invade Silesia.
After allowing them across "If you want to catch a mouse, leave the trap open" , Frederick then pinned down the enemy force and defeated them at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg.
Once again, Frederick's stunning victories on the battlefield compelled his enemies to sue for peace. Under the terms of the Treaty of Dresden , signed on 25 December , Austria was forced to adhere to the terms of the Treaty of Breslau giving Silesia to Prussia.
Habsburg Austria and Bourbon France , traditional enemies, allied together in the Diplomatic Revolution of following the collapse of the Anglo-Austrian Alliance.
Frederick swiftly made an alliance with Great Britain at the Convention of Westminster. On 29 August , his well-prepared army preemptively invaded Saxony , [46] beginning the Third Silesian War and the larger Seven Years' War , both of which lasted until Frederick's subsequent invasion of Austrian Bohemia, though initially successful, ended in his first defeat at the Battle of Kolin and forced him into retreat.
However, when the French and the Austrians pursued him into Saxony and Silesia, Frederick decisively defeated them at the battles of Rossbach and Leuthen.
Frederick hoped these two great victories would force Austria to negotiate, but Maria Theresa was determined not to make peace until she had recovered Silesia, and the war continued.
Despite its excellent performance, the Prussian army became increasingly stretched thin by various costly battles.
Facing a coalition of enemies including Austria, France, Russia , Saxony and Sweden , and allied only with Great Britain, Hesse , Brunswick , and Hanover , Frederick narrowly kept Prussia in the war despite having his territories repeatedly invaded.
He suffered some severe defeats and was frequently at his last gasp, but he always managed to recover. His position became even more desperate in when Britain, having profited by gains in India and the Americas, ended its financial support for Prussia after the death of King George II, Frederick's uncle.
On 6 January , he wrote to Count Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein , "We ought now to think of preserving for my nephew, by way of negotiation, whatever fragments of my territory we can save from the avidity of my enemies".
Peter III was so enamored of Frederick that he not only offered him the full use of a Russian corps for the remainder of the war against Austria, he also wrote to Frederick that he would rather have been a general in the Prussian army than Tsar of Russia.
With the threat to his eastern borders over, and France also seeking peace after its defeats by Britain, Frederick was able to fight the Austrians to a stalemate and finally brought them to the peace table.
While the ensuing Treaty of Hubertusburg simply returned the European borders to what they had been before the Seven Years' War, Frederick's ability to retain Silesia in spite of the odds earned Prussia admiration throughout the German-speaking territories.
Frederick's ultimate success in the Seven Years' War came at a heavy price, both to him and Prussia. While Prussia lost no territory, her population and army were severely depleted by constant combat and invasions by Austria, Russia and Sweden.
Many of Frederick's closest friends as well as his sister Wilhelmine, his brother Augustus William and his mother and the best of his officer corps were lost in the war.
By , with his economy largely recovered, Frederick had managed to bring his army up to , men making it the third-largest army in Europe , but almost none of the officers were veterans of his generation, and the King's attitude towards them was extremely harsh.
Frederick had despised the Poles since his youth, and he is known to have expressed numerous anti-Polish statements, [62] referring to Polish society as "stupid", and remarking that "all these people with surnames ending with -ski, deserve only contempt".
Frederick undertook the conquest of Polish territory under the pretext of an enlightened civilizing mission, given his disparagement of Poland and its ruling elite, all of which provided a convenient entree for the "sanguine meliorism" of the Enlightenment and heightened assurance in the "distinctive merits of the 'Prussian way'".
According to Scott, Frederick was eager to exploit Poland economically as part of his wider aim of enriching Prussia. Scott views this as a continuation of his previous violations of Polish territory in and and raids within Greater Poland until Lewitter says: "The conflict over the rights of religious dissenters [in Poland] had led to civil war and foreign intervention.
The Protestant dissidents were still free to practice their religion, although their schools were shut down. Protestants like other dissidents were allowed to serve in the army and vote in elections, but were barred from public offices and the Polish Parliament Sejm , and during the s their importance became out of proportion compared to their numbers.
Frederick exploited this conflict as means to keep Poland weak and divided. Empress Elizabeth of Russia was staunchly opposed to Prussia, and in response Frederick opposed Russia, whose troops had been allowed to freely cross the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Seven Years' War of — Frederick and Catherine signed a defensive alliance in that guaranteed Prussian control of Silesia in return for Prussian support for Russia against Austria or the Ottoman Empire.
Frederick became concerned, however, after Russia gained significant influence over Poland in the Repnin Sejm of , a position which also threatened Austria and the Ottoman Turks.
In the ensuing Russo-Turkish War —74 , Frederick supported Catherine with a subsidy of , rubles, albeit with reluctance as he did not want Russia to become even stronger through acquisitions of Ottoman territory.
After Russia occupied the Danubian Principalities in —70, Frederick's representative in Saint Petersburg, his brother Prince Henry , convinced Frederick and Maria Theresa that the balance of power would be maintained by a tripartite division of the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth instead of Russia taking land from the Ottomans.
They agreed to the First Partition of Poland in , which took place without war. Frederick claimed most of the Polish province of Royal Prussia.
Frederick also invited German immigrants to the province, [78] hoping they would displace the Poles.
Frederick himself tried further propaganda to justify the Partition, portraying the acquired provinces as underdeveloped and improved by Prussian rule.
According to Karin Friedrich these claims were accepted for a long time in German historiography and sometimes still reflected in modern works.
Dismissive of contemporary German culture, Frederick instead pursued an imperialist policy, acting on the security interests of his state. After the first partition Frederick engaged in plunder of Polish property, confiscating Polish estates and monasteries to support German colonization, and in he ordered forced buy-outs of Polish holdings.
Frederick looked upon many of his new Polish citizens with scorn, but carefully concealed that scorn when actually dealing with them.
Frederick's long-term goal was to remove all Polish people from his territories, both peasants and nobility. He sought to expel the nobles through an oppressive tax system and the peasantry by eradicating the Polish national character of the rural population by mixing them with Germans invited in their thousands by promises of free land.
By such means, Frederick boasted he would "gradually Frederick wrote that Poland had "the worst government in Europe with the exception of Turkey ".
I have drained the marshes and established a police force where none existed. Those hitherto in power have destroyed the schools, thinking that the uneducated people are easily oppressed.
These provinces cannot be compared with any European country—the only parallel would be Canada. Frederick also sent in Jesuits to open schools, and befriended Ignacy Krasicki , whom he asked to consecrate St.
Hedwig's Cathedral in He also advised his successors to learn Polish, a policy followed by the Hohenzollern dynasty until Frederick III decided not to let the future William II learn the language.
Late in his life Frederick involved Prussia in the low-scale War of the Bavarian Succession in , in which he stifled Austrian attempts to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria.
Unfortunately for the Austrian Emperor Joseph II , the French were unable to provide sufficient manpower and resources to the endeavor since they were already struggling on the North American continent against the British, aiding the American cause for independence in the process.
Frederick ended up as a beneficiary of the French and British struggle across the Atlantic, as Austria was left more or less isolated.
Although Frederick was weary of war in his old age, he was determined not to allow the Austrians dominance in German affairs. Frederick and Prince Henry marched the Prussian army into Bohemia to confront Joseph's army, but the two forces ultimately descended into a stalemate, largely living off the land and skirmishing rather than actively attacking each other.
Frederick's longtime rival Maria Theresa Joseph's mother and co-ruler did not want a new war with Prussia, and secretly sent messengers to Frederick to discuss peace negotiations.
Finally, Catherine II of Russia threatened to enter the war on Frederick's side if peace was not negotiated, and Joseph reluctantly dropped his claim to Bavaria.
When Joseph tried the scheme again in , Frederick created the Fürstenbund , allowing himself to be seen as a defender of German liberties, in contrast to his earlier role of attacking the imperial Habsburgs.
In the process of checking Joseph II's attempts to acquire Bavaria, Frederick enlisted two very important players, the Electors of Hanover and Saxony along with several other second-rate German princes.
Perhaps even more significant, Frederick benefited from the defection of the senior prelate of the German Church Archbishop of Mainz who was also the arch-chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, which further strengthened Frederick and Prussia's standing amid the German states.
Contrary to what his father had feared, Frederick proved himself very courageous in battle with the exception of his first battlefield experience, Mollwitz.
He frequently led his military forces personally and had six horses shot from under him during battle.
During his reign he commanded the Prussian Army at sixteen major battles most of which were victories for him and various sieges, skirmishes and other actions.
He is often admired as one of the greatest tactical geniuses of all time, especially for his usage of the oblique order of battle, in which attack is focused on one flank of the opposing line, allowing a local advantage even if his forces were outnumbered overall which they often were.
Even more important were his operational successes, especially preventing the unification of numerically superior opposing armies and being at the right place at the right time to keep enemy armies out of Prussian core territory.
Napoleon Bonaparte saw the Prussian king as the greatest tactical genius of all time; [94] after Napoleon's victory over the Fourth Coalition in , he visited Frederick's tomb in Potsdam and remarked to his officers, "Gentlemen, if this man were still alive I would not be here".
Clausewitz praised particularly the quick and skillful movement of his troops. Frederick the Great's most notable and decisive military victories on the battlefield were the Battles of Hohenfriedberg , fought during the War of Austrian Succession in June ; [98] the Battle of Rossbach , where Frederick defeated a combined Franco-Austrian army of 41, with a mere 21, soldiers 10, dead for the Franco-Austrian side with only casualties for Prussia ; [99] and the Battle of Leuthen , which was a follow up victory to Rossbach pitting Frederick's 36, troops against Charles of Lorraine's Austrian force of 80,—Frederick's masterful strategy and tactics at Leuthen inflicted 7, casualties upon the Austrians and yielded 20, prisoners.
Frederick the Great believed that creating alliances was necessary, as Prussia did not have the comparable resources of nations like France or Austria.
Frederick was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics.
There are no circumlocutions, he gives factual and historical proof of the assertions he makes, for he is well versed in history.
Historian Robert M. Citino describes Frederick's strategic approach:. Historian Dennis Showalter argues: "The King was also more consistently willing than any of his contemporaries to seek decision through offensive operations.
Foresight ranked among the most important attributes when fighting an enemy, according to the Prussian monarch, as the discriminating commander must see everything before it takes place, so "nothing will be new to him.
Donning both the skin of a fox or a lion in battle, as Frederick once remarked, reveals the intellectual dexterity he applied to the art of warfare.
Much of the structure of the more modern German General Staff owed its existence and extensive structure to Frederick, along with the accompanying power of autonomy given to commanders in the field.
Even the later military reputation of Prussia under Bismarck and Moltke rested on the weight of mid-eighteenth century military developments and the territorial expansion of Frederick the Great.
Frederick helped transform Prussia from a European backwater to an economically strong and politically reformed state.
He protected his industries with high tariffs and minimal restrictions on domestic trade. He reformed the judicial system, allowed freedom of speech in press and literature.
He abolished most uses of judicial torture, except the flogging of soldiers as punishment for desertion. The death penalty could be carried out only with a warrant signed by the King himself; Frederick only signed a handful of these warrants per year, and then only for murder.
He made it possible for men not of noble stock to become judges and senior bureaucrats. William L. Langer finds that "Prussian justice became the most prompt and efficient in Europe".
New agricultural land was reclaimed at the Oder. In January , Johann Philipp Graumann was appointed as Frederick's confidential adviser on finance, military affairs, and royal possessions, as well as the Director-General of all mint facilities.
In addition, he wanted to compete with the French Louis d'or , which was used all over Germany and the Dutch currency which was used for trading in the Baltic states.
Graumann announced that he would be able to achieve high coin seignorage for the state and that Berlin would become the largest exchange center in Central and Northern Europe.
Frederick reorganized the Prussian Academy of Sciences and attracted many scientists to Berlin. Around he founded the Emden Company to promote trade with China.
Zahlreiche Gerüchte und Geschichten sind in Umlauf. Captain Henry, der totgeglaubt war, lebt jedoch mitten unter den Siedlern und verhilft ihnen wie den Indianern zu ihrem Recht.
Schamoni gab drei Gründe für das gewählte Westerngenre an. Ferner könne ein Thema wie das der europäischen Siedler aus unserem Blickwinkel am besten dargestellt werden.
Internationaler Titel ist Montana Trap. Potato Fritz.
Potato Fritz - Inhaltsverzeichnis
Nutzer haben kommentiert. Potato Fritz. Anton Diffring. Dragoons wollen das Versteck ausfindig machen.Potato Fritz Potato Fritz - Zwei gegen Tod und Teufel Video
Frankenjura: Potato Fritz, 7A Internationaler Titel ist Montana Trap. New York: Harper Perennial, Age Rage Enlightenment. Merke dir den Film jetzt vor und wir benachrichtigen dich, sobald er verfügbar ist. They agreed Guardians Of The Galaxy 1 Stream the First Partition of Poland in The Order Serie, which took place without war. Europe: The Struggle for Supremacy, from to the Present. Zahlreiche Gerüchte und Geschichten sind in Umlauf. According to Karin Friedrich these claims were accepted for a long time in German historiography and sometimes still reflected in modern works. These provinces cannot be compared with any European country—the only parallel would be Canada. Monarchs of Prussia. Heute, ein Jahr später, zeugen sieben Kreuze von dem brutalen Überfall. Das transportierte Geld ist verschwunden. Viele Abenteurer streifen durch die Gegend, um möglicherweise das verschwundene Geld zu finden. Trending: Meist diskutierte Filme. James Bond Collection Arasoke lässt ihm zwar in Abständen seine Hütte niederbrennen, aber nach dem Leben trachten die Crows ihm nicht, weil er nie eine Waffe bei sich trägt. Sie sind der Schrecken wehrloser Siedler. Das transportierte Geld ist verschwunden. Paul Hengge. Viele Abenteurer streifen durch die Gegend, um möglicherweise das verschwundene Geld zu finden. Diana Körner. Auf der Passhöhe knallen plötzlich Schüsse, Zeitstopper pfeifen The Fast And The Furious 8 Stream Deutsch die Felsen, und Entsetzens- und Todesschreie hallen durch die Berge. Stephen Boyd. Bis auf eine Ausnahme: Potato Fritz. Bilder Oreimo Bs. Die Besten Western.
Potato Fritz Angaben zum Film
Paul Hengge. Sie warten verzweifelt auf die Ankunft Colonel Baxters und seiner Truppe. Filmpalast.Tv mit Potato Fritz. Kommentar speichern. Alle anzeigen. David Hess.Da er Kartoffeln anbaut, bekommt er den Beinamen Potato Fritz. Home Filme Potato Fritz. Deine Bewertung. Vormerken Ignorieren Zur Liste Kommentieren.
Schaue jetzt Potato Fritz. Leider ist Potato Fritz derzeit bei keinem der auf Moviepilot aufgelisteten Anbietern zu sehen. Merke dir den Film jetzt vor und wir benachrichtigen dich, sobald er verfügbar ist.
Film vormerken. Hardy Krüger. Stephen Boyd. Anton Diffring. Friedrich von Ledebur. Arthur Brauss.
Luis Barboo. The Protestant dissidents were still free to practice their religion, although their schools were shut down. Protestants like other dissidents were allowed to serve in the army and vote in elections, but were barred from public offices and the Polish Parliament Sejm , and during the s their importance became out of proportion compared to their numbers.
Frederick exploited this conflict as means to keep Poland weak and divided. Empress Elizabeth of Russia was staunchly opposed to Prussia, and in response Frederick opposed Russia, whose troops had been allowed to freely cross the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Seven Years' War of — Frederick and Catherine signed a defensive alliance in that guaranteed Prussian control of Silesia in return for Prussian support for Russia against Austria or the Ottoman Empire.
Frederick became concerned, however, after Russia gained significant influence over Poland in the Repnin Sejm of , a position which also threatened Austria and the Ottoman Turks.
In the ensuing Russo-Turkish War —74 , Frederick supported Catherine with a subsidy of , rubles, albeit with reluctance as he did not want Russia to become even stronger through acquisitions of Ottoman territory.
After Russia occupied the Danubian Principalities in —70, Frederick's representative in Saint Petersburg, his brother Prince Henry , convinced Frederick and Maria Theresa that the balance of power would be maintained by a tripartite division of the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth instead of Russia taking land from the Ottomans.
They agreed to the First Partition of Poland in , which took place without war. Frederick claimed most of the Polish province of Royal Prussia.
Frederick also invited German immigrants to the province, [78] hoping they would displace the Poles. Frederick himself tried further propaganda to justify the Partition, portraying the acquired provinces as underdeveloped and improved by Prussian rule.
According to Karin Friedrich these claims were accepted for a long time in German historiography and sometimes still reflected in modern works.
Dismissive of contemporary German culture, Frederick instead pursued an imperialist policy, acting on the security interests of his state.
After the first partition Frederick engaged in plunder of Polish property, confiscating Polish estates and monasteries to support German colonization, and in he ordered forced buy-outs of Polish holdings.
Frederick looked upon many of his new Polish citizens with scorn, but carefully concealed that scorn when actually dealing with them.
Frederick's long-term goal was to remove all Polish people from his territories, both peasants and nobility. He sought to expel the nobles through an oppressive tax system and the peasantry by eradicating the Polish national character of the rural population by mixing them with Germans invited in their thousands by promises of free land.
By such means, Frederick boasted he would "gradually Frederick wrote that Poland had "the worst government in Europe with the exception of Turkey ".
I have drained the marshes and established a police force where none existed. Those hitherto in power have destroyed the schools, thinking that the uneducated people are easily oppressed.
These provinces cannot be compared with any European country—the only parallel would be Canada. Frederick also sent in Jesuits to open schools, and befriended Ignacy Krasicki , whom he asked to consecrate St.
Hedwig's Cathedral in He also advised his successors to learn Polish, a policy followed by the Hohenzollern dynasty until Frederick III decided not to let the future William II learn the language.
Late in his life Frederick involved Prussia in the low-scale War of the Bavarian Succession in , in which he stifled Austrian attempts to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria.
Unfortunately for the Austrian Emperor Joseph II , the French were unable to provide sufficient manpower and resources to the endeavor since they were already struggling on the North American continent against the British, aiding the American cause for independence in the process.
Frederick ended up as a beneficiary of the French and British struggle across the Atlantic, as Austria was left more or less isolated. Although Frederick was weary of war in his old age, he was determined not to allow the Austrians dominance in German affairs.
Frederick and Prince Henry marched the Prussian army into Bohemia to confront Joseph's army, but the two forces ultimately descended into a stalemate, largely living off the land and skirmishing rather than actively attacking each other.
Frederick's longtime rival Maria Theresa Joseph's mother and co-ruler did not want a new war with Prussia, and secretly sent messengers to Frederick to discuss peace negotiations.
Finally, Catherine II of Russia threatened to enter the war on Frederick's side if peace was not negotiated, and Joseph reluctantly dropped his claim to Bavaria.
When Joseph tried the scheme again in , Frederick created the Fürstenbund , allowing himself to be seen as a defender of German liberties, in contrast to his earlier role of attacking the imperial Habsburgs.
In the process of checking Joseph II's attempts to acquire Bavaria, Frederick enlisted two very important players, the Electors of Hanover and Saxony along with several other second-rate German princes.
Perhaps even more significant, Frederick benefited from the defection of the senior prelate of the German Church Archbishop of Mainz who was also the arch-chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, which further strengthened Frederick and Prussia's standing amid the German states.
Contrary to what his father had feared, Frederick proved himself very courageous in battle with the exception of his first battlefield experience, Mollwitz.
He frequently led his military forces personally and had six horses shot from under him during battle.
During his reign he commanded the Prussian Army at sixteen major battles most of which were victories for him and various sieges, skirmishes and other actions.
He is often admired as one of the greatest tactical geniuses of all time, especially for his usage of the oblique order of battle, in which attack is focused on one flank of the opposing line, allowing a local advantage even if his forces were outnumbered overall which they often were.
Even more important were his operational successes, especially preventing the unification of numerically superior opposing armies and being at the right place at the right time to keep enemy armies out of Prussian core territory.
Napoleon Bonaparte saw the Prussian king as the greatest tactical genius of all time; [94] after Napoleon's victory over the Fourth Coalition in , he visited Frederick's tomb in Potsdam and remarked to his officers, "Gentlemen, if this man were still alive I would not be here".
Clausewitz praised particularly the quick and skillful movement of his troops. Frederick the Great's most notable and decisive military victories on the battlefield were the Battles of Hohenfriedberg , fought during the War of Austrian Succession in June ; [98] the Battle of Rossbach , where Frederick defeated a combined Franco-Austrian army of 41, with a mere 21, soldiers 10, dead for the Franco-Austrian side with only casualties for Prussia ; [99] and the Battle of Leuthen , which was a follow up victory to Rossbach pitting Frederick's 36, troops against Charles of Lorraine's Austrian force of 80,—Frederick's masterful strategy and tactics at Leuthen inflicted 7, casualties upon the Austrians and yielded 20, prisoners.
Frederick the Great believed that creating alliances was necessary, as Prussia did not have the comparable resources of nations like France or Austria.
Frederick was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics.
There are no circumlocutions, he gives factual and historical proof of the assertions he makes, for he is well versed in history.
Historian Robert M. Citino describes Frederick's strategic approach:. Historian Dennis Showalter argues: "The King was also more consistently willing than any of his contemporaries to seek decision through offensive operations.
Foresight ranked among the most important attributes when fighting an enemy, according to the Prussian monarch, as the discriminating commander must see everything before it takes place, so "nothing will be new to him.
Donning both the skin of a fox or a lion in battle, as Frederick once remarked, reveals the intellectual dexterity he applied to the art of warfare.
Much of the structure of the more modern German General Staff owed its existence and extensive structure to Frederick, along with the accompanying power of autonomy given to commanders in the field.
Even the later military reputation of Prussia under Bismarck and Moltke rested on the weight of mid-eighteenth century military developments and the territorial expansion of Frederick the Great.
Frederick helped transform Prussia from a European backwater to an economically strong and politically reformed state. He protected his industries with high tariffs and minimal restrictions on domestic trade.
He reformed the judicial system, allowed freedom of speech in press and literature. He abolished most uses of judicial torture, except the flogging of soldiers as punishment for desertion.
The death penalty could be carried out only with a warrant signed by the King himself; Frederick only signed a handful of these warrants per year, and then only for murder.
He made it possible for men not of noble stock to become judges and senior bureaucrats. William L. Langer finds that "Prussian justice became the most prompt and efficient in Europe".
New agricultural land was reclaimed at the Oder. In January , Johann Philipp Graumann was appointed as Frederick's confidential adviser on finance, military affairs, and royal possessions, as well as the Director-General of all mint facilities.
In addition, he wanted to compete with the French Louis d'or , which was used all over Germany and the Dutch currency which was used for trading in the Baltic states.
Graumann announced that he would be able to achieve high coin seignorage for the state and that Berlin would become the largest exchange center in Central and Northern Europe.
Frederick reorganized the Prussian Academy of Sciences and attracted many scientists to Berlin.
Around he founded the Emden Company to promote trade with China. He introduced Friedrich d'or , a lottery , a fire insurance and to stabilize the economy a giro discount and credit bank.
Frederick the Great followed his recommendations in the field of toll levies and import restrictions. When Gotzkowsky asked for a deferral during the Amsterdam banking crisis of , Frederick took over his porcelain factory, now known as KPM.
Frederick modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and promoted religious tolerance throughout his realm to attract more settlers in East Prussia.
With the help of French experts, he organized a system of indirect taxation , which would provide the state with more revenue than direct taxation; the French officials who would have to lease the tax failed.
Frederick was a religious skeptic , in contrast to his devoutly Calvinist father. Frederick wanted development throughout the country, adapted to the needs of each region.
He was interested in attracting a diversity of skills to his country, whether from Jesuit teachers, Huguenot citizens, or Jewish merchants and bankers.
Like Catherine II of Russia , Frederick recognised the educational activities of the Jesuits as an asset for the nation. We have too many Jews in the towns.
They are needed on the Polish border because in these areas Hebrews alone perform trade. As soon as you get away from the frontier, the Jews become a disadvantage, they form cliques, they deal in contraband and get up to all manner of rascally tricks which are detrimental to Christian burghers and merchants.
I have never persecuted anyone from this or any other sect; I think, however, it would be prudent to pay attention, so that their numbers do not increase.
Jews on the Polish border were therefore encouraged to perform all the trade they could and received the same protection and support from the king as any other Prussian citizen.
In territories he conquered from Poland, Frederick persecuted Polish Roman Catholic churches by confiscating goods and property, exercising strict control of churches, and interfering in church administration [].
As Frederick made more wasteland arable, Prussia looked for new colonists to settle the land. To encourage immigration, he repeatedly emphasized that nationality and religion were of no concern to him.
This policy allowed Prussia's population to recover very quickly from its considerable losses during Frederick's three wars.
Like many leading figures in the Age of Enlightenment, Frederick was a Freemason , and his membership legitimized the group and protected it against charges of subversion.
Frederick the Great was keenly interested in land use, especially draining swamps and opening new farmland for colonizers who would increase the kingdom's food supply.
He called it "peopling Prussia" Peuplierungspolitik. About a thousand new villages were founded in his reign that attracted , immigrants from outside Prussia.
He told Voltaire, "Whoever improves the soil , cultivates land lying waste and drains swamps, is making conquests from barbarism". This program created roughly 60, hectares , acres of new farmland, but also eliminated vast swaths of natural habitat , destroyed the region's biodiversity , and displaced numerous native plant and animal communities.
Frederick saw this project as the " taming " and "conquering" of nature, which, in its wild form, he regarded as "useless" and "barbarous"—an attitude that reflected his enlightenment-era, rationalist sensibilities.
For this, he was sometimes called Der Kartoffelkönig the Potato King. Frederick's interest in land reclamation may have resulted from his upbringing.
As a child, his father, Frederick William I, made young Frederick work in the region's provinces, teaching the boy about the area's agriculture and geography.
This created an interest in cultivation and development that powered the boy as he became ruler. The king founded the first veterinary school in Germany.
Unusual for his time and aristocratic background, he criticized hunting as cruel, rough and uneducated. When someone once asked Frederick why he did not wear spurs when riding his horse, he replied, "Try sticking a fork into your naked stomach, and you will soon see why.
In he wrote to his sister Wilhelmine that people indifferent to loyal animals would not be devoted to their human comrades either, and that it was better to be too sensitive than too harsh.
He was also close to nature and issued decrees to protect plants. Frederick was a patron of music as well as a gifted musician who played the transverse flute.
The Hohenfriedberger Marsch , a military march , was supposedly written by Frederick to commemorate his victory in the Battle of Hohenfriedberg during the Second Silesian War.
His court musicians included C. Frederick aspired to be a Philosopher king ; he joined the Freemasons in and corresponded with key French Enlightenment figures.
While using German as a working language in the army and with his administration, Frederick read and wrote his literary works in French and also generally used that language with his closest relatives or friends.
Though he had a good command of this language, his writing style was flawed; he had troubles with its orthography and always had to rely on French proofreaders.
Frederick disliked the German language and literature, explaining that German authors "pile parenthesis upon parenthesis, and often you find only at the end of an entire page the verb on which depends the meaning of the whole sentence".
His main inspirations were ancient philosophers and poets as well as French authors of the 17th century. However, interest in foreign cultures was by no means an exception in Germany at that time.
Many German rulers sought to emulate the success of Louis XIV of France and adopted French tastes and manners, though often adapted to the German cultural context.
In the case of Frederick II, it might also have been a reaction to the austerity of the family environment created by his father, who had a deep aversion for France and was not interested in the cultural development of his state.
On the other hand, while still considering the German culture of his time to be inferior to that of France or Italy, he did try to foster its development.
He thought that it had been hindered by the devastating wars of the 17th century the Thirty Years' War, the Ottoman wars, the invasions of Louis XIV but that with some time and effort, it could equal or even surpass its rivals.
He disapproved of the luxury and extravagance of the French royal court, and he ridiculed German princes especially Augustus III, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland who imitated French sumptuousness.
Also, Frederick the Great was dismissive of the radical philosophy of later French thinkers such as Rousseau though he in fact sheltered Rousseau from persecution for a number of years , and grew to believe that the French cultural golden age was drawing to a close.
Despite his distaste for German, Frederick did sponsor the Königliche Deutsche Gesellschaft Royal German Society , founded in Königsberg in , the aim of which was to promote and develop the German language.
He allowed the association to be titled "royal" and have its seat at the Königsberg Castle. However, he does not seem to have taken much interest in the work of the society.
Frederick also promoted the use of German instead of Latin in the field of law, though mainly for practical reasons. The king's criticism led many German writers to attempt to impress Frederick with their writings in the German language and thus prove its worthiness.
Many statesmen, including Baron vom und zum Stein , were also inspired by Frederick's statesmanship. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe gave his opinion of Frederick during a visit to Strasbourg Strassburg by writing:.
Well, we had not much to say in favour of the constitution of the Reich; we admitted that it consisted entirely of lawful misuses, but it rose therefore the higher over the present French constitution which is operating in a maze of unlawful misuses, whose government displays its energies in the wrong places and therefore has to face the challenge that a thorough change in the state of affairs is widely prophesied.
In contrast when we looked towards the north, from there shone Frederick, the Pole Star, around whom Germany, Europe, even the world seemed to turn Frederick had many famous buildings constructed in his capital Berlin, most of which still stand today, such as the Berlin State Opera , the Royal Library today the State Library Berlin , St.
However, the king preferred spending his time in his summer residence at Potsdam, where he built the palace of Sanssouci , the most important work of Northern German rococo.
Sanssouci French for "carefree" or "without worry" , was a refuge for Frederick. As a great patron of the arts, Frederick was a collector of paintings and ancient sculptures; his favorite artist was Jean-Antoine Watteau.
The picture gallery at Sanssouci "represents a unique synthesis of the arts in which architecture, painting, sculpture and the decorative arts enter into dialogue with each other, forming a compendium of the arts.
Both the wall paneling of the galleries and the diamond shapes of the floor consist of white and yellow marble. Paintings by different schools were displayed strictly separately: 17th-century Flemish and Dutch paintings filled the western wing and the gallery's central building, while Italian paintings from the High Renaissance and Baroque were exhibited in the eastern wing.
Sculptures were arranged symmetrically or in rows in relation to the architecture. Aarsleff notes that before Frederick came to the throne in , the Prussian Academy of Sciences Berlin Academy was overshadowed by similar bodies in London and Paris.
During the reign of Frederick's father, the Academy had been closed down as an economy measure, but Frederick promptly re-opened it when he took the throne in Frederick made French the official language and speculative philosophy the most important topic of study.
However the Academy was in a crisis for two decades at mid-century, due to scandals and internal rivalries such as the debates between Newtonianism and Leibnizian views, and the personality conflict between Voltaire and Maupertuis.
At a higher level Maupertuis, the director —59 and a monarchist, argued that the action of individuals was shaped by the character of the institution that contained them, and they worked for the glory of the state.
By contrast d' Alembert took a republican rather than monarchical approach and emphasized the international Republic of Letters as the vehicle for scientific advance.
Immanuel Kant published religious writings in Berlin which would have been censored elsewhere in Europe. Most modern biographers agree that Frederick was primarily homosexual , and that his sexual orientation was central to his life.
At age 16, Frederick seems to have embarked upon a youthful affair with Peter Karl Christoph von Keith, a year-old page of his father. Rumors of the liaison spread in the court and the "intimacy" between the two boys provoked the condemnation of even his elder and favorite sister, Wilhelmine , [14] who wrote, "Though I had noticed that he was on more familiar terms with this page than was proper in his position, I did not know how intimate the friendship was.
As a result, Keith was dismissed from his service to the king and sent away to a regiment by the Dutch border, while Frederick was sent to Wusterhausen in order to "repent of his sin.
Frederick's physician Johann Georg Ritter von Zimmermann claimed that Frederick had suffered a minor deformity during an operation to cure gonorrhea in , and convinced himself that he was impotent, but pretended to be homosexual in order to appear that he was still virile and capable of intercourse, albeit with men.
This story is doubted by Wolfgang Burgdorf, who is of the opinion that "Frederick had a physical disgust of women" and therefore "was unable to sleep with them.
In , Frederick met the Venetian philosopher Francesco Algarotti , and they were both infatuated. Challenged by Algarotti that northern Europeans lacked passion, Frederick penned for him an erotic poem, La Jouissance , which imagined Algarotti in the throes of sexual intercourse with another partner, a female named Chloris.
In , Frederick was forced to marry Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern , with whom he had no children.
He immediately separated from his wife when his father died seven years later. He would later only pay her formal visits once a year.
William Hogarth 's painting The Toilette features a flautist who stands next to a painting of Zeus , as an eagle, abducting Ganymede , which may be a satirical depiction of Frederick — thereby publicly outing him as a homosexual as early as Frederick certainly spent much of his time at Sanssouci, his favourite residence in Potsdam, in a circle that was exclusively male, though a number of his entourage were married.
Their literary correspondence and friendship, which spanned almost 50 years, was marked by mutual intellectual fascination, and began as a flirtation.
Voltaire's angry attack on Maupertuis, the President of Frederick's academy, in the form of Le Diatribe du Docteur Akakia provoked Frederick to burn the pamphlet publicly and put Voltaire under house arrest, after which Voltaire left Prussia.
The revelations and language were strikingly similar to those detailed in a scurrilous pamphlet published in French, in London in In , Frederick signed a Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the United States of America , recognising the independence of the new nation.
The agreement included a novel clause, whereby the two leaders of the executive branches of either country guaranteed a special and humane detention for prisoners of war.
Near the end of his life, Frederick grew increasingly solitary. His circle of close friends at Sanssouci gradually died off with few replacements, and Frederick became increasingly critical and arbitrary, to the frustration of the civil service and officer corps.
The populace of Berlin always cheered the king when he returned to the city from provincial tours or military reviews, but Frederick evinced little pleasure from his popularity with the common people, preferring instead the company of his pet Italian greyhounds , [] whom he referred to as his " marquises de Pompadour " as a jibe at the French royal mistress.
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Captain Henry, der totgeglaubt war, lebt jedoch mitten unter den Siedlern und verhilft ihnen wie den Indianern zu ihrem Recht.
Schamoni gab drei Gründe für das gewählte Westerngenre an. Ferner könne ein Thema wie das der europäischen Siedler aus unserem Blickwinkel am besten dargestellt werden.
Internationaler Titel ist Montana Trap.
Historian Robert M. Citino describes Frederick's strategic approach:. Friedrich der Grosse. Bilder anzeigen. Greenwood Publishing Group. In contrast, Frederick's mother Sophia was polite, charismatic and learned. Wells Cambridge University Press.Potato Fritz Kurzbeschreibung
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